Iron Deficiency (Without Anemia)

Lactoferrin (LF) is a natural iron-binding protein found in milk. It exists either in an iron-free state (apo-LF) or bound to iron (holo-LF). Whether LF binds iron to facilitate its absorption and/or to sequester iron from potential enteropathogens remains uncertain. However, while LF is a promising tool for treating iron deficiency, it is sensitive to heat during food processing and to the acidic environment of the human stomach. This degradation often causes LF to lose its functional properties before it can promote iron absorption effectively. This study aims to evaluate whether encapsulating apo-LF (either alone or in combination with iron) can protect LF from digestion and enhance iron absorption. Using a randomized, crossover design, different encapsulation methods will be compared to determine which results in the highest iron absorption in women with iron deficiency. All test compounds will be labeled with stable iron isotopes. Participants will consume the labeled compounds with a test meal or water in a randomized order, allowing for within subject comparisons. Fractional iron absorption will be measured 17 days after administration via the incorporation of labeled iron into red blood cells.

Validation of non-invasive measurement of zinc protoporphyrin for detection of iron deficiency in pregnancy. In addition, the impact of iron deficiency on the incidence of postpartum depression, restless legs syndrome, obstetric complications and quality of life will be examined.

Iron is involved in many vital metabolic processes such as oxygen transport, electron transport in cells, DNA synthesis and repair, and muscle metabolism. However, iron deficiency and iron deficiency anemia continue to affect many people, particularly preschool children (\<5 years), adolescents, and pregnant and non-pregnant women of childbearing age. Iron deficiency is characterized by a lack of total iron stores in the body, which is mainly caused by insufficient dietary iron intake, physiologically increased iron requirements, poor intestinal iron absorption, or chronic blood loss. Animal foods are important sources of highly bioavailable iron in the human diet. Meeting human nutritional needs for the rapidly increasing world population while targeting food production within the planetary boundaries will require the identification of sustainable iron sources, such as edible insects. A previous iron absorption study showed that insect iron is absorbed moderately well. The present study will examine if and to which extent chitin, a polysaccharide within the insect biomass, inhibits iron absorption. In addition, the enhancing iron absorption of ascorbic acid on iron absorption from Tenebrio molitor larvae will be studied. This knowledge can support to optimize the composition of an insect-based meal to increase its iron absorption. To distinguish iron absorption from insect biomass from other sources, insects are labeled with stable iron isotopes (Fe-57, Fe-58, Fe-54) and iron absorption in the blood is measured.

This cross-sectional study aims to establish reference intervals for iron biomarkers-including serum iron, ferritin, total iron-binding capacity (TIBC), and transferrin saturation (TSAT)-in healthy pregnant women during the first trimester. Additionally, the study will investigate the current prevalence of non-anemic iron deficiency (NAID) in this population. By applying strict inclusion and exclusion criteria to eliminate potential confounding factors, the study seeks to provide a reliable baseline for evaluating iron status and early detection of iron deficiency without anemia among pregnant women.

Serum ferritin is a key indicator of body iron stores and is widely used in monitoring iron status. However, oral iron doses can acutely elevate SF levels, potentially biasing assessments of iron stores during supplementation. This study aims to investigate the extent and duration of the acute iron-induced effect on serum ferritin following the administration of a daily iron dose for two months.

The goal of this clinical trial is to investigate how iron status and heavy bleeding during the menopausal transition affect women's cognitive function and quality of life. The main questions it aims to answer are: * What is the association between iron status, cognitive function, mood, quality of family relationships, and quality of life in perimenopausal women? * How does iron repletion, via supplementation, affect cognitive function, mood, quality of family relationships, and quality of life in perimenopausal women? The investigators will compare the effect of iron supplements to a placebo (gelatin capsule) to see if iron supplements could improve iron status, cognitive function, mood, quality of family relationships, and quality of life of iron-deficient and/or anemic women undergoing the menopausal transition. Each participant will: * Make 2 visits (about 2 hours each - baseline and endline) to the Clinical Research Center at Purdue * Make a very brief visit at midpoint (about 10 minutes) for a checkup * Take a daily study supplement or placebo for 4 months