Control Subjects

The study will investigate how a history of emotional childhood maltreatment (CM) is associated with different aspects of psychological (social behaviour, empathy) and biological (brain function and structure, inflammation) health. In fact, CM is a risk factor for many mental disorders, such as schizophrenia and autism. However, it is unclear how a history of emotional CM affects psychological and biological outcomes in bipolar disorder (BD). Therefore, this study focuses on understanding how a possible history of CM affects BD compared to control participants (CP) with no known psychiatric illness. The aim of the project is to investigate how a history of emotional CM is associated with social cognition. The investigators will recruit 80 CP and 80 people diagnosed with BD, some of whom will have a history of CM. The investigators will assess psychological well-being (social behaviour, empathy) at two points in time at the Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy, Psychosomatics and Medical Psychology at the Medical University of Innsbruck (MUI). Additionally, as they want to understand how emotional CM affects brain function and structure, the investigators will perform magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain at the Neuroimaging Core Facility (Medical University of Innsbruck). The investigators also want to understand how biological markers in the blood (such as telomere length, inflammation) might be affected, assessed in collaboration with the Department of Psychology (Leopold-Franzens University of Innsbruck). Finally, the investigators will look at a combination of the psychological and biological tests to see if there is a link between emotional CM and health outcomes.

This study looks to characterize gradients of dysfunction in the autonomic nervous system in patients with clinically diagnosed multiple sclerosis. The autonomic nervous system plays key roles in regulation of blood pressure, skin blood flow, and bladder health- all issues that individuals with multiple sclerosis typically suffer. Focusing on blood pressure regulation, the most precise metric with broad clinical applicability, the investigators will perform laboratory-based tests to probe the body's ability to generate autonomic responses. For both individuals with multiple sclerosis and uninjured controls, laboratory-based experiments will utilize multiple parallel recordings to identify how the autonomic nervous system is able to inhibit and activate signals. The investigators anticipate that those with autonomic dysfunction with multiple sclerosis will exhibit abnormalities in these precise metrics. The investigators will look to see if any substantial connections exist between different degrees of preserved autonomic function and secondary autonomic complications from multiple sclerosis. In accomplishing this, the investigators hope to give scientists important insights to how the autonomic nervous system works after multiple sclerosis and give physicians better tools to manage these secondary autonomic complications.

The goal of this clinical trial is to learn if attention and ways of thinking impact decision-making and brain processes related to decision-making in people with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder relative to people without either condition. It will also learn how brain functioning during decision-making relates to real-world decisions made during daily life. The main questions it aims to answer are: * Does paying attention to specific information impact decision-making and brain processes? * Does thinking in a certain way according to specific 'thinking strategies' improve brain processes related to decision-making? * Does brain functioning during decision-making relate to real-world choices to engage in activities? Researchers will compare brain functioning and decision-making on computer tasks of gambling after participants have been trained to use a positive thinking strategy. They will compare what is different in the brain and behavior when participants use this strategy and when they do not. Participants will also answer brief surveys about activities and feelings for a week in their daily lives. Participants will: * Complete several hours of clinical interviewing, cognitive tests, and surveys of about symptoms, experiences, and personality * Complete computer tasks about gambling decisions during MRI brain scanning and while having their visual attention measured using eye-tracking * Complete brief surveys about their activities and feelings 5 times a day for 1 week using a cell phone. Each survey only take several minutes.

The purpose of this study is to understand how transcranial magnetic stimulation affects how quickly, easily, and accurately a person read. Transcranial magnetic stimulation is a technique that uses magnetic fields to briefly affect how well certain brain regions function. The investigators would like to better understand how long the effects of transcranial magnetic stimulation occur in the reading system and at what point the effect is strongest in this system. The main questions it aims to answer are: 1. At what point after stimulation are the greatest effects on behavior seen 2. How excitatory and inhibitory stimulation affect behavior Researchers will compare stimulation types against a sham condition to see effects on reading and language behavior. Participants will be asked to * undergo reading, language, and cognitive testing * receive an MRI * receive TMS stimulation * perform language, reading, and motor tasks